Public access is an absolute necessity if the government wishes to use the maps to help resolve land conflicts. In 1991, a coup ousted dictator Mohammed Siad Barre, President of the Somali Democratic Republic. This volume is not limited to events in Tanzania, but includes jurisprudence of land law of other countries in order to tap some interpretative devices of our own by way of analogies. Often, these people waged war to liberate themselves when they were unable, through dialogue and the political process, to correct what Cohen (1995) termed the contradictions of colonial rule in some cases, and the failures of de-colonisation in others. As he put it, ‘The modern African state was created by colonial powers out of ethnic and regional diversities, and rendered conflictual by gross inequities in power relations, and in the uneven distribution of national wealth and development opportunities’ (Cohen 1995:11). an estimated 75% of all conflict-related deaths on the continent.1 According to the conflict-mapping think tank Armed Conflict and Location Event Data Project (ACLED), Nigeria proved to be the deadliest country in Africa, with 11 360 fatalities (29% of the total), followed by South Sudan (6 383, accounting for 16%). 2) Inter-state conflicts: These are conflicts between the governments and sometimes peoples of two different countries. Out of the targeted 85 thematic maps, 83 have been compiled and integrated by OMP. Social conflicts, 2. A few cases of liberation conflicts in Africa include the Eritrean War of independence; the South Sudan war; the Namibian War of independence; and the Cassamance conflict in Senegal. The international organisations involved in African conflicts are mainly the UN and the OAU/AU. Such Eurocentric thinking, reinforced by technological and scientific achievements, is still very present in Africa. France also provided funding through the Paris-based multilateral Agency for Cultural and Technical Cooperation (ACCT) for launching a West African ‘Observatory’ or watchdog based in Dakar, Senegal, to focus on 1) prevention and settlement of conflicts and 2) democratic transition in West Africa. By engaging the colonial factor in African conflicts, this article seeks to understand the ineffectiveness of efforts at conflict management in overcoming the disasters that brought the conflicts to the African continent. One can safely state that the international community was, toward the end of the 20th century, responsive to the African conflict situation if one considers the number of seminars and conferences organised around the theme of conflict management in Africa as a reliable indicator. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1514(XV) of 14 December 1960, entitled ‘Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples’. the enhanced use of traditional conflict resolution mechanisms in conflict management today. Founded in 1819, Norwich University serves students with varied work schedules and lifestyles. In: Deng and Zartman eds. The OAU on its part was, until 1990, virtually non-responsive to African conflicts because of its sacrosanct doctrine of non-interference in the internal affairs of member states. December 1895 - February 1896 Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War. Apart from the US, the leaders of this conflict management support were France and Britain – Western governments with colonial, economic and political stakes and the longest history of military-to-military relations in the continent (Cohen 1996:4). This is an examination of the broader context for the re-emergence of land reform and resource conflicts in Africa. CONFLICT AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN GHANA: THE CASE OF THE DAGBON CONFLICT . This is why most western literature on conflicts in Africa may still need further clarification in regard to specific conflict types. It can also be said to be an incompatibility, as of two things that cannot be simultaneously fulfilled. Additionally, valued resources like oil, sand, precious metals, coal, wood, and gypsum among others contribute to conflict. These conflicts are similar to the Quebec Sovereignty Question in Canada and the Chechnya conflict in Russia. Insofar as the war in Sudan was concerned, he traced it to ‘the manner in which the Anglo-Egyptian administration brought the North and the South together, but kept them apart under a separatist policy for most of the Condominium rule, and then left them in a centralized unitary state without constitutional guarantees for the disadvantaged South’ (Cohen 1995:12). 2008. 1873 - 1874 Third Anglo-Ashanti War. 1992. There are about four million peasant families in Tanzania. Foreword. As he put it: In a conflict situation the two parties are unable to stand outside their own perceptions. Duala-M’bedy (1984:10) asserted that ‘the European concept of state has had a strong influence on African countries and that it was this concept of state that led to drawing up of arbitrary borders throughout Africa’. 1991. pp. Bad enough, a frustrated society of Tanzania is surrounded by countries prone of conflicts, for example, Sudan, Somalia and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The BIG facilitates local-community-based participatory mapping through the PetaKita apps. Conflicts occur as a result of combination of factors. As stated earlier, former colonial powers have been involved in the efforts to address conflicts in Africa. These African leaders have not only retained the politics of power and violence, but many of them have also continued to reinforce the tradition. (CAB Abstracts) The second strong idea that emerges from intervention literature is the increasing emphasis on conflict management rather than resolution as the intervention approach in Africa. To a considerable extent, Burundi and Rwanda also have some ingredients of civil rights conflicts. This book is examines particular African countries that are recovering from civil wars that left thousands of their citizens internally displaced or as refugees in surrounding countries. France also intervened militarily in some of her former colonies such as Côte d’Ivoire (2003 and 2010), Chad (2008), Mali (2013) or in the Central African Republic, the claim being to achieve what became known as ‘peace and stability’ rather than to resolve the respective conflicts by proceeding with both sides participating equally in finding solutions acceptable to both and, therefore, self-sustaining. This guide is being published in two formats. To a very large extent, the stakes are participation and distribution at the centre. 1811 Ga-Fante War. It may be helpful to think of natural resources in terms of how they are used. Unlike liberation conflicts discussed above, civil rights conflicts always occur within the same nation. In some of the cases mentioned above, violent conflict came about by the annulment of a free and fair democratic process and, in others, serious internal political violence began after what the people saw as flaws occasioned by heavily rigged elections, winners seeking to exclude some actors or whole sections of the country, or incumbents being unwilling to submit to the will of the people as expressed through the ballot box. Whereas in the Western Sahara Conflict, Algeria fought against Morocco alongside the indigenous Polissario Front, the Bakassi Peninsula belongs to neither of the two nations that claim the territory. Peters, P.E. The United Nations and the United States became heavily involved in the conflict from 1992 to 1995, sending military forces and humanitarian aid to the country. These kinds of governance manoeuvres in a post-colonial situation remain consistent with the inherited tradition of political power and dominance of the colonial administration. For example, most pastoral communities in Turkana and Pokot battle over pastoral land and water for their animals, resulting in cattle rustling that is often done out of revenge. Climate change-induced migration and violent conflict. Political repression in Africa goes back to Africa’s colonial legacy. The first trend shows that the main actors intervening in African conflicts were almost entirely from outside of Africa. Found inside – Page 31.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Ethnic land conflict is an intrinsic component of the ... The Great Lakes region (Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania and Democratic Republic of Congo) and the Horn of Africa (Kenya, ... May 22, 2006. Webb, Keith, Vassiliki Koutrakou and Mike Walters 1996. In spite of the huge cost of the wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone in terms of human lives and material, the peace-keeping interventions focused mainly on achieving what these actors termed ‘peace and stability’ (Cohen 1996:6). Here are three examples of land conflicts in Riau, the province with the highest rate of land conflicts in Indonesia (42 cases out of 410 cases or 807,177.6 Ha). A fascinating study of the important role of biology in European expansion, from 900 to 1900. Nowadays human-wildlife conflict exists in one form or another all over the world. This volume synthesizes insights from the vast literature on land policy. The need for a colonial analysis remains pertinent because the workings of colonialism’s culture are still with us and because post-coloniality is highly engaged with colonialism (Thomas 1994). xiii-xx. That classification, which appears to stem from Western knowledge of and consideration for African societies, may need to be expanded further. Neither side wants a full-fledged war—Ethiopia because a war could reverse the country’s economic gains, and Eritrea, because its government knows it’s in a weaker political and diplomatic position. The unique curriculum of the online Master of Arts in Military History program was developed by the distinguished faculty of Norwich University and guided by the goals outlined by the American Historical Association. From the foregoing, it is evident that ‘conflict resolution’ in Africa has been colonial in some form whether it was designed and implemented by individuals, countries, groups of countries, institutions or organisations. This article deals with issues of land conflicts in Tanzania . Some inter-state conflicts have occurred mainly over disputed territories like the Chad-Libya conflict over the Aouzou strip. Case law in this area remains insufficiently documented, is contradictory, and there is a dearth of While the on-going Western Sahara conflict is about the right of self-determination afforded other former European dependencies, the conflicting situation in Côte d’Ivoire following the death of the country’s first President, Houphouet Boigné, is also closely associated with the nature of the country’s independence and political leadership. As Zartman (2000:3) has pointed out, although African conflicts involve the activities of seasoned peacemakers using the best of personal skills and recently developed knowledge about ways of managing and resolving conflicts, international efforts at conflict management have not been particularly effective or efficient in overcoming the disasters that have brought them to the continent. The only issues were power and violence, and that remains the tradition of politics that African leaders took to independence in their respective nations. The tribunals seem to have been intended for punishing individuals chosen for destruction by the powerful stakeholders rather than for unearthing the causes of conflict that remain deeply rooted in the respective societies. The local municipality then appealed . Center for Strategic & International Studies. The solution to the conflict in this approach ought not to be imposed from outside. In Kampar Regency, 7 Customary Law Communities (MHA) have been fighting for recognition of their territories for 10 years without any result. 1996, pp. 1814-1816 Ashanti-Akim-Akwapim War. These interventions ended up with the establishment of War Crime Tribunals with none of the actors giving any consideration for the need to address the deep concerns of the parties in the conflict. What should we do when nations get angry? Among the 16.5 million inhabitants mistrust towards the government continues to grow. It is that the conflicts occurring within a national boundary in Africa have different stakes and different root causes. But in Africa, political and ethnic conflicts are tantamount to resource based conflicts and this is primarily because those who wield political power also control the national resources. This column, taken from a recent VoxEU eBook, summarises the key findings of studies that use high-resolution Other resources, For Cohen, the colonial state was fraught with contradictions. Rather, the UK lobbied the UN to hastily lump together British Southern Cameroons and a Trust Territory of France without constitutional guarantees for the disadvantaged former British Territory of Southern Cameroons. It is on this basis that the conference forming the foundation of this book was organised. 1985. From the examples provided earlier, one can affirm that the conflict management approach has been the dominant approach in African conflicts. The concern of the colonial masters at independence and beyond, for the most part, was to hand power to a group of cronies whose mission was always not to ‘govern their people well’ but to protect the interests of the metropole. Deininger and Castagnini use data from Uganda to explore who is affected by land conflicts, whether recent legal changes have helped to reduce their incidence, and to assess their impact on productivity. Proponents of the management approach, on the other hand, believe that attempts to resolve conflicts are unrealistic, so rather than dealing with basic issues, attention should be concentrated on ameliorating the symptoms of the conflict, and in this way reducing suffering (Ryan 1990:102). Receive latest updates, news and analysis from ACCORD. 1991. The mainland terrain includes highlands in the north and south and a central plateau. With the help of Great Britain, the Nigerian federal government reacted quickly, gaining control of the oil-rich southeast coast and blockading supplies to the region, causing severe famine and leading to the deaths of nearly two million civilians and 100,000 military personnel. While the consensus on intervention in African conflicts has mainly favoured the conflict management approach along the specific lines of power and military force through peace-keeping in different conflict locations, the language used also appeared to be colonially cavalier as in the concept known as ‘the development of conflict management approaches tailored to African circumstances …’. These conflicts have been the most widely known and studied of Africa’s conflicts. Competition can occur between any number and type of identity . conflicts that started prior to 1980.2 One possible explanation is that it is now much easier to sustain and fund conflict than it used to be. The Politics of Land Reform in Africa casts a critical spotlight on this profound change in African land economy. The book illuminates the key role of legislators, legal consultants and academics in tenure reform. 1991. pp. Although the democratisation process has experienced some success in a few countries such as Benin and Botswana, and recently Ghana, South Africa, and Tanzania, the examples of many other African countries, including Cameroon, Chad, Congo, Central African Republic and Côte d’Ivoire, are far from inspiring any hope for the future of democratic rule. John Burton (1979; 1984; 1987; 1990), for example, calls for the adoption of a human needs approach, arguing for a paradigm shift in how we analyse conflicts. 17 The emerging land conflict resolution system in Laos 77 List of tables Tab. Recommended Readings: 10 Largest Air to Air Battles in Military History [infographic]An Introduction to Amphibious WarfareU.S. These were individuals, countries, groups of countries, institutions and organisations. Civil rights conflicts, when left unresolved, can escalate into civil wars as in Liberia, Somalia, Mozambique, Angola, Congo, Chad, Uganda, Sierra Leone, and Côte d’Ivoire. Any discussion of ‘internal or national governance’ therefore cannot exclude the structure of the state and the political leadership as inherited from colonialism, given that the basis for African states and political leadership in most of the continent is colonial. The first major difference between the two approaches concerns the desire or not to raise the fundamental issues that divide the parties to a conflict. Fear of domination from a rival group or opposition parties may however, resort to conflicts. Out of the targeted 85 thematic maps, 83 have been compiled and integrated by OMP. Let us now consider the basis of African nations or states, and the concepts of power and governance. The conflicts in Liberia and Sierra Leone were two situations in which ECOWAS sent in troops with financial and material support from the international community, notably the United States (Cohen 1996). From land disputes in Liberia, to reconciliation in Côte d'Ivoire, and competition for resources aggravated by widespread displacement in Africa's Great Lakes region, ADR can deliver quick (though not immediate) relief to some recurrent conflict triggers in fragile contexts, while more complex and long-term judicial sector restructuring . Africa has had border disputes through the millennia. These dimensions, in Kriesberg’s words, include the issues in contention (resources and interests or values and ideology), the arenas in which the conflict is waged (families, communities, countries, or regions) and the contending parties (persons, organisations, classes, or peoples). Additionally, because the conflict was a civil war, stabilizing forces within the government had to figure out how to fight and also limit destruction, how to inflict wounds and simultaneously heal relations, and how to subdue forces without causing permanent injury. The point here, however, is that the people who seek to liberate themselves and their territory consider themselves as having been compelled by colonial forces to live with a different group, often with great incompatibilities as in the case of South Sudan and the others cited above. Problem-solving workshops: The role of scholarship in conflict resolution. The third party acts as a mirror, an overview, a provider of provocation and creativity and a director of thinking. By envisaging peace-keeping forces in the 21st century, the AU leadership may be making the error of keeping Africa in the colonial mindset while the rest of the world advances in the democratic respect of dialogue and human and people’s rights in the resolution of conflicts. How does that "fear" manifest in reality? Tanzania has a total land area of 885,800 square kilometers, including 2,643 square kilometers that comprise the Zanzibar archipelago. President Jokowi quipped that many fears the implementation of OMP. This resulted in the worsening overlapping land use issue, exacerbating land conflicts in the country. African states have also remained spheres of influence of former colonial powers, and no power in the world has been interested in changing that situation. For example, Ojukwu, in a 2000 interview with BBC News, said he believes the Igbos have been largely excluded from holding power since the civil war. Military History: War of 1812, Timeline: Somalia, 1991-2008, The Atlantic, 50 years of declaration of Nigeria –Biafra war:Have the issues that caused the war been resolved?, Vanguard, Background: the Lord's Resistance Army, The Guardian, Lord's Resistance Army, Oxford Bibliographies, Rwanda genocide: 100 days of slaughter, BBC News, What’s Behind Ethiopia And Eritrea’s Border Clash?, Newsweek, Ethiopia and Eritrea blame each other for border clash, BBC News, The First Sudanese Civil War, South African History Online, Has Ugandan rebel leader Joseph Kony been defeated?, BBC News, Ambush in Mogadishu: The Lessons of Somalia – Not Everything Went Wrong, Frontline, Six Lessons From the Rwandan Genocide, Huffington Post, The Lord’s Resistance Army and Children, Children and Armed ConflictSomalia, 1992–1993, Office of the Historian. In: Zunes, Stephen and Jacob Mundy 2010. Land Law Manual In Tanzania In Tanzania, transfers of rights of occupancy frequently encounter procedural problems, and as regards land transfers, existing legal structures are inadequate. These conflicts were only addressed superficially, their intensity notwithstanding. Attempts to resolve any of the conflicts must consequently not continue to ignore these underlying causes. Since the genocide, Rwanda has grappled with the status of former government forces and refugees in neighboring countries, how to best pursue justice for genocidal crimes, and how to reconstruct the political, social, and economic infrastructure of a country that was devastated by intense internal conflict. The 1961 unification of the Southern Cameroons and La République du Cameroun gave rise to the Federal Republic of Cameroon, which did share a maritime border with Nigeria, with the Bakassi Peninsula becoming part of the Federal Republic of Cameroon … Following the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Cameroon in 1972 and the effective secession of La République du Cameroun from the union in 1984 and the symmetrical return of the Southern Cameroons to the status of a UN Trust Territory, that [sic] La République du Cameroun ceased to share a maritime boundary with the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Annexationist conflicts are similar to liberation conflicts because the nations so annexed and colonially occupied (often with the connivance of colonial forces) seek to liberate themselves and their territory. It is also being torn apart due to resources such as diamonds and offshore oil, with . We partner with African governments and civil society organizations, as well as regional organizations, to address insufficient recognition and protection of rural peoples' land rights, women's lack of control over assets, weak land management and conflict . 2008). Conflicts and Causes of Conflicts in Africa INTRODUCTION. Meanwhile, the role of the Pokja PPS has been intensified in Riau based on the amendment to a Governor’s Decree. The competition in Africa appears to be over the revenue generated from scarce natural resources which often leads to violent conflict. Political repression and non-respect for human rights are synonymous with bad governance. Many of them remain undetermined due to the existence of natural resources, scattered small-scale agricultural lands/plantations and the misinformed custom to use customary land as village boundary marker. The United States officially ended its involvement in Somalia in 1994 due to the lack of a foreseeable resolution and financial costs in excess of $1.7 billion. The article also argues that conflicts at sub-national and national levels in Africa are of several types, and that imposing peace-keeping forces as has often been the case, or merely imposing new political and economic institutions on the various African conflicts, may not provide the desired durable outcomes. France also supported the development of an inventory of available military assets in West Africa for an eventual AU and/or a sub-regional peace-keeping contingent (Cohen 1996:5). This book provides background information and experiences of the Hadzabe with government and development agents, relations with neighbouring communities, church and NGO-organizations. Armed conflicts in Africa during the twentieth century caused an enormous loss of human life, the collapse of socio-economic systems, and the degradation of health and education services across the continent. Since the establishment of KPH in Riau, progress has been slow compared to other provinces. Customary traditions of land tenure emphasize moderate use, restoration, and community health and prosperity. Flashcard maker : Lily Taylor. In this conflict type, the stakes are mainly those about who is where, who gets what, how and when (Lasswell 1936). The critical question then is how we understand the problem of conflict resolution in Africa when the actors, mainly external to Africa, propagate the idea of peace and conflict resolution corresponding mainly to their own interests and view of Africa and the world. Inequality and social conflict over land in Africa. In response to these challenges and risks, the European Union (EU) and the United Nations (UN) entered into a partnership in 2008 for building capacities for land, natural resources and conflict . Scholars of the resolution approach argue that the unsolvable nature of a particular conflict is more apparent than real. Competition over land and its resources is at the center of the nexus between land and conflict. 367-399. Here are three examples of land conflicts in Riau, the province with the highest rate of land conflicts in Indonesia (42 cases out of 410 cases or 807,177.6 Ha). After Nigeria gained its independence from Britain in 1960, the country divided into ethnically defined regions—the Igbo people occupied the southeast, the Yoruba the southwest, and the Hausa and Fulani the north. 1991. pp 95-114. The policy of the blind eye is just as inadequate as imposing an army of occupation on a given people or nation in conflict, as has been the case in several conflicts in Africa. It is difficult to imagine how the War Crimes Tribunal in Rwanda helped to bring justice to the situation bred, for instance, by colonialism and the de-colonisation process in Burundi and Rwanda. These are only some examples of the conflicts in Africa which General Obasanjo (1991) described aptly as the continent with the greatest number of conflicts. Key words: Land acquisition, public use, compensation, land conflicts and peace and harmony 1. For example, the conflict in the Sudan is an example of both horizontal inequality (with people in the south being heavily deprived) and powerful private gains that perpetuate the struggle. Pluralism, violence and the modern state. Two cases, however, stand out prominently. Colonial rule was the antithesis of democracy, because it was premised on the usurpation of the fundamental right of self-determination and of the fundamental human rights of citizens and peoples. All this could fuel instability: for example, by exacerbating food insecurity, water scarcity, and resource competition and by leading more people to flee their homes. In this regard, an attempt to focus on the various types of conflicts in Africa from the standpoints of the subject or nature of the dominant issues involved in each category is important. This causes a lot of conflict between the two parties since they want different things. Skjelsbaek and Fermann indicated that even in the mediations undertaken under the auspices of the UN, the actor in international relations supposedly with claims to impartiality and neutrality, these vested interest considerations seem to be in play always. The westernmost maritime boundary of La République du Cameroun is at the estuary of the Mungo River. In East Africa, the war in South Sudan, the collapse of the State in Somalia, and the conflicts in Rwanda and Burundi, the situation in Ethiopia as well as the wars in former Zaire, are significant examples of protracted conflicts. This phenomenon is described by Cohen (1996:6) as ‘blocked political systems that can no longer resolve individual or group differences through nonviolent procedures’. When the conflict ended the Nigerian government declared to the Igbo that there was “no victor, no vanquished,” but historians say the war did and still does affect national politics and policymaking in the region. These conflicts arose, rather, from the aspirations of a people to assert their fundamental human right of self-determination, as contained in the UN Charter. The word conflict is as old as mankind. In these situations, the focus has been on the use of power at the disposal of former colonial states to impose whatever solution was in the interest of the intervening powerful third-parties (Webb, Koutrakou and Walters 1996; Skjelsbaek and Fermann 1996). Whatever the case, OAU intervention through peace-keeping has been seriously bogged down by three fundamental principles: namely, non-interference in the internal affairs of member states, territorial integrity, and inviolability of the boundaries inherited from colonisation (Cohen 1996:2-3). The completion of the OMP geoportal and its maps is commendable, but these data are only valuable if they can be used to resolve land conflicts. Making the claim that conflict resolution is more than the suppression or perhaps the elimination of overt violence, it argues that envisaging and/or imposing peace-keeping forces at every turn on various African conflicts does not provide the desired durable outcomes. Problem solving and international relations. Stephen Ryan (1990:50) has asserted that too often conflict resolution is used as a cover-all term that fails to face up to the different processes involved in the reduction or elimination of violence. It is important to underscore that, like the afore-mentioned conflict cases, the roots of many current conflicts – latent and manifest – including the cases of Western Sahara and British Southern Cameroons, can also be traced to colonialism and the de-colonisation process. 1991. pp. King, Martin Luther jr. 1963. The UN, for instance, has intervened in African conflicts since independence as in the case of Congo Leopoldville or Kinshasa. The typology of African conflicts highlighted in the article could surely be greatly enriched by a careful exploration of the various conflict types viewed from the perspective of the different issues in contention. In many cases, these pacts have not been rescinded half a century after independence and that is why former French colonies either still have the French military stationed in the countries or continue to call on France for military intervention as in the recent cases of Central African Republic and Mali. This has allowed penetration of weapons and terrorist groups in Tanzania and East Africa in general. The report of a former Secretary-General of the UN on this subject is pertinent to this analysis.
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